Brahman
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In the Vedic and Hindu religions, Brahman (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मन्; IAST: Brahman) has a "variety of meanings," but in the Upanishads and later Indian philosophies it connotes 'That' from which everything in this world proceeds, and to which everything returns,[1][a] the origin and cause of all that exists.[2][3][4] In contemporary Hinduism metaphysics it is the highest universal principle, the Ultimate reality of the universe.[5][2][6]
Brahman is a concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads, with a variety of meanings.[7] In Vedic times, the concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference."[8]
In the Upanishads, the concept of Brahman evolves to encompass metaphysical, ontological, and soteriological themes. Brahman is described as the unchanging "primordial reality" that creates, sustains, and ultimately withdraws the universe within itself,[9][10][11][10][12] the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated.[note 1] Brahman is also portrayed as the "divine being" or "Lord," which may manifest as either a distinct deity or as an immanent presence within all individuals. It represents the "knowledge" that leads to spiritual liberation, the "Self."[13]
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts in relation to the concept of Atman (Sanskrit: आत्मन्, 'Self'),[7][14] personal,[note 2] impersonal[note 3] or Para Brahman,[note 4] or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.[15] In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being.[4][16][17] In non-dual schools such as the Advaita Vedanta, the substance of Brahman is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.[18][19][20]
- ^ Olivelle 2008, p. lvi.
- ^ a b P. T. Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
- ^ Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, ISBN 978-9042015104, pages 43–44
- ^ a b For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35 - ^ Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 1. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 122. ISBN 978-0823931798.
- ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga).
- ^ a b Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1–4
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
gavinflood84was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 53–55.
- ^ a b Potter 2008, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Brodd, Jeffrey (2003). World Religions. Winona, Minnesota: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
- ^ John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.[1]
- ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581; pages 358, 371; pages 305, 476; pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851; pages 211, 741–742; pages 308–311, 497–499; pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850; pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851; pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708; pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777
- ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 49–53.
- ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
- ^ Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124–127
- ^ Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110342550, pages 155–157
- ^ Brodd, Jeffrey (2009). World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery (3rd ed.). Saint Mary's Press. pp. 43–47. ISBN 978-0884899976.
- ^ Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86
- ^ John E. Welshons (2009), One Self, One Love, One Heart, New World Library, ISBN 978-1577315889, pages 17–18
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