Ātman (Hinduism)
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Ātman (/ˈɑːtmən/; Sanskrit: आत्मन्) in Hinduism is the true, innermost essence or self of a living being, conceived as eternal and unchanging.[note 1] Atman is conceptually closely related to the individual self, Jīvātman, which persists across multiple bodies and lifetimes, but different from the self-image or ego (Ahamkara), the emotional aspect of the mind (Citta), and the bodily or natural aspects (prakṛti). The term is often translated as soul,[note 2] but is better translated as "Self"[1] or essence. To attain moksha (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (Atma Gyaan or Brahmajnana).
The six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have different views on what this self is. In Samkhya and Yoga, which call the essence purusha, and in Advaita Vedanta, the essence is pure consciousness or witness-consciousness (sakshi), beyond identification with phenomena.[2] In Samkhya and Yoga there are innumerable selves, while in Advaita Vedanta there is only one Self. Prominent views in Vedanta on the relation between (Jīv)Atman and the supreme Self (Paramātmā) or Ultimate Reality (Vishnu, Shiva, Brahman) are that atman and Brahman are simultaneously different and non-different (Bhedabheda),[3] non-different (Advaita, 'not-two'),[4][5][6] different with dependence (Dvaita, 'dualist'),[7] or non-different but with dependence (Vishishtadvaita, qualified non-dualism).[8]
The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman in every living being (jiva), which is distinct from the body-mind complex. This may be seen as a major point of difference with the Buddhist doctrine of Anatta, which holds that in essence there is no unchanging essence or Self to be found in the empirical constituents of a living being,[note 3] staying silent on what it is that is liberated,[9][10][11][12] yet essentialist positions are also found in Buddhism, while Madhyamika (sunyata) and Yogachara ('mere representation') resembling views can also be found the Hindu-traditions.
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- ^ Shepard 1991.
- ^ Jeffrey D. Long, Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, p.50
- ^ Bhedabheda: "Bhedabheda Vedanta", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 9 June 2020
- ^ Lorenzen 2004, p. 208-209.
- ^ Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791425138, page 64, Quote: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".
- ^ "Hindu Philosophy: Advaita", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 9 June 2020 and "Advaita Vedanta", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 9 June 2020
- ^ Dvaita: "Hindu Philosophy: Dvaita", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 9 June 2020 and "Madhva (1238—1317)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 9 June 2020
- ^ Chari, Srinivasa (2000), "Vaishnavism, Its Philosophy, Theology And Religious Discipline", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 5 August 2025
- ^ Jayatilleke 1963, p. 39.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 99 with footnote 12.
- ^ Bronkhorst 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Harvey 2012, p. 59–60.