Philippine–American War

Philippine–American War
[[file:Kenneth Dungca bowl cur almoranas and troops in Pampanga c1898.jpg|0px|alt=]]
Clockwise from top left: U.S. troops in Manila, Gregorio del Pilar and his troops around 1898, Americans guarding the Pasig River bridge in 1898, the Battle of Santa Cruz, Filipino soldiers at Malolos, the Battle of Quingua
DateFirst phase:
February 4, 1899 – July 4, 1902
(3 years, 2 months, 1 week and 5 days)[i]
Moro Rebellion:
May 2, 1902 – June 15, 1913
(11 years, 1 month, 1 week and 6 days)
Location
Philippines
Result

American victory

  • American occupation of the Philippines fully established; dissolution of the First Philippine Republic
  • Philippine Organic Act
Territorial
changes		 The Philippines becomes an unincorporated territory of the United States and later, a U.S. Commonwealth (until 1946).
Belligerents

1899–1902:
United States

  • United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands

1899–1902:[a]
 Philippines

  • Negros Republic
  • Zamboanga Republic

1902–1913:
United States

  • Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
 1902–1913:
Tagalog Republic (until 1906)
Maguindanao Sultanate (until 1905)
Sulu Sultanate
Commanders and leaders
  • Emilio Aguinaldo 
  • Apolinario Mabini
  • Pedro Paterno
  • Antonio Luna X
  • Artemio Ricarte
  • José Alejandrino
  • Miguel Malvar
  • Gregorio Aglipay
  • Dionisio Seguela
  • Gregorio del Pilar †
  • Vicente Alvarez
  • Macario Sakay 
  • Datu Ali †
  • Jamalul Kiram II
Units involved
1899–1902:
1902–1913:
1899–1902:
  • Philippine Army
  • Philippine Navy
  • Babaylanes
  • Pulajanes
  • Ishin Shishi[1]
1902–1913
Irreconcilables
Babaylanes
Pulajanes
Moro people
Strength
  • ≈126,000 total[2][3]
  • ≈24,000 to ≈44,000 field strength[4]
 ≈80,000–100,000
regular and irregular[4]
Casualties and losses
4,200 killed,[5] 2,818 wounded, several succumbed to disease[6] About 10,000 killed[7] (Emilio Aguinaldo estimate),
16,000–20,000 killed[8] (American estimate)
200,000–250,000 died, most because of famine and disease[ii]
  1. ^ There is disagreement regarding the official ending date of the conflict; see here for further information.
  2. ^ While there are many estimates for civilian deaths, with some at around 1 million and others going well over a million for the war, modern historians generally place the death toll between 200,000 and 250,000;[9][10] see "Casualties".

The Philippine–American War, known alternatively as the Philippine Insurrection, Filipino–American War,[b] or Tagalog Insurgency,[12][13][14] emerged following the conclusion of the Spanish–American War in December 1898 when the United States annexed the Philippine Islands under the Treaty of Paris. Philippine nationalists constituted the First Philippine Republic in January 1899, seven months after signing the Philippine Declaration of Independence. The United States did not recognize either event as legitimate, and tensions escalated until fighting commenced on February 4, 1899, in the Battle of Manila.

Shortly after being denied a request for an armistice, the Philippine Council of Government issued a proclamation on June 2, 1899, urging the people to continue the war.[15] Philippine forces initially attempted to engage U.S. forces conventionally but transitioned to guerrilla tactics by November 1899. Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901, and the war was officially declared over by the US on July 4, 1902.[16] However, some Philippine groups – some led by veterans of the Katipunan including Macario Sakay, a revolutionary society that had launched the revolution against Spain – continued to fight for several more years. Other groups, including the Muslim Moro peoples of the southern Philippines and quasi-Catholic Pulahan religious movements, continued hostilities in remote areas. The resistance in the Moro-dominated provinces in the south, called the Moro Rebellion by the Americans, ended with their final defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913.[17]

The war resulted in at least 200,000 Filipino civilian deaths, mostly from famine and diseases such as cholera.[18][19][20] Some estimates for civilian deaths reach up to a million.[8] War crimes were committed during the conflict,[21] including rape, torture, mutilation, and summary executions of civilians and prisoners. In retaliation for Filipino guerrilla warfare tactics, the U.S. carried out reprisals and scorched earth campaigns and forcibly relocated many civilians to concentration camps, where thousands died.[22][23][24] The war and subsequent occupation by the U.S. changed the culture of the islands, leading to the rise of Protestantism, disestablishment of the Catholic Church, and the adoption of English by the islands as the primary language of government, education, business, and industry.[25] The U.S. annexation and war sparked a political backlash from anti-imperialists in the U.S. Senate, who argued that the war was a definite example of U.S. imperialism, and that it was an inherent contradiction of the founding principles of the United States contained in the Declaration of Independence.[26][27][28]

In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which provided for the creation of the Philippine Assembly, with members to be elected by Filipino men (women did not yet have the right to vote). This act was superseded by the 1916 Jones Act (Philippine Autonomy Act), which contained the first formal and official declaration of the United States government's commitment to eventually grant independence to the Philippines.[29] The 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act) created the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year. The act increased self-governance and established a process towards full independence (originally scheduled for 1944, but delayed by World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines). The United States eventually granted full Philippine independence in 1946 through the Treaty of Manila.[30]


Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gazette2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference JHUG20060410 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Deady2005p62 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Deady2005p55 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Hack & Rettig 2006, p. 172.
  6. ^ Karnow 1989, p. 194.
  7. ^ Aguinaldo, E. (2016). A Second Look at America (Classic Reprint). Fb&c Limited. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-333-84114-0. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
  8. ^ a b Burdeos 2008, p. 14
  9. ^ Ramsey 2007, p. 103.
  10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Smallman1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference StateDept was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Linn 2000a, p. x.
  13. ^ Battjes 2011, pp. 5, 74.
  14. ^ Silbey 2008, p. xv.
  15. ^ Kalaw 1927, pp. 199–200.
  16. ^ Amnesty Proclamation
  17. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 247–297.
  18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Clodfelter was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wolff1961 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Foner1972 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ "Philippines – Early History". www.country-data.com.
  22. ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine–American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History. Abc-Clio. p. 477. ISBN 978-1851099528.
  23. ^ Cocks, Catherine; Holloran, Peter C.; Lessoff, Alan (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era. Scarecrow Press. p. 332. ISBN 978-0810862937.
  24. ^ Kenneth C. Davis (2015). The Hidden History of America at War: Untold Tales from Yorktown to Fallujah. Hachette Books. p. 141. ISBN 978-1401330781.
  25. ^ Cite error: The named reference dolan1991USRule was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  26. ^ "The First Philippine Question". The Philippines and the University of Michigan, 1870–1935. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  27. ^ "Crucible of Empire – PBS Online". www.pbs.org. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  28. ^ "Opposition to the Philippine–American War". Stanford History Education Group. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
  29. ^ Cite error: The named reference Filipiniana was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  30. ^ "July 4, 1946: The Philippines Gained Independence from the United States". The National WWII Museum. New Orleans. July 2, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2022.
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