Colonialism

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Decolonization
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Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole, who also claim superiority.[1][2][3][4] While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization). Rather than annexation,[5] this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole.[6][2] Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism, whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing indigenous peoples, possibly amounting to genocide.[6][7]: 2 [8]

Colonialism monopolizes power by understanding conquered land and people to be inferior, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission. These beliefs and the actual colonization establish a so-called coloniality,[9][10][11] which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination.[12][13]

While different forms of colonialism have existed around the world, the concept has been developed as a description of European colonial empires of the modern era. These spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I.[14] European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established complex colonialities.

Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975.[15][16] Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development,[17][18][19] regime types,[20][21] and state capacity.[22][23] Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.[24][25]

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference c602 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Osterhammel16 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rogers was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Schaefer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacobs 2009 p. was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference coloniality was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Stoler, Ann Laura (4 October 1995). Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11319d6. ISBN 978-0-8223-7771-9.
  13. ^ Abay, Robel Afeworki; Soldatic, Karen. "Intersectional Colonialities: Embodied Colonial Violence and Practices of Resistance at the Axis of Disability, Race, Indigeneity, Class, and Gender". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  14. ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0.
  15. ^ Strang, David (1991). "Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500–1987". International Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 429–454. doi:10.2307/2600949. ISSN 0020-8833. JSTOR 2600949.
  16. ^ Strang, David (1990). "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987". American Sociological Review. 55 (6): 846–860. doi:10.2307/2095750. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2095750.
  17. ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review. 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1369. ISSN 0002-8282.
  18. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). "The Importance of History for Economic Development". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 65–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336. ISSN 1941-1383.
  19. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). "The historical roots of economic development". Science. 367 (6485) eaaz9986. doi:10.1126/science.aaz9986. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32217703.
  20. ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009423526. ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3.
  21. ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009115223. ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3.
  22. ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition. Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4. JSTOR j.ctt9qh05m.
  23. ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). "Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa". The Economic Journal. 129 (619): 1048–1081. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12595. hdl:2263/71163. ISSN 0013-0133.
  24. ^ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0.
  25. ^ Halperin, Sandra (2 December 2023). "Neocolonialism". Neocolonialism | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica. Britannica.
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