Phoenicia

Phoenicians were an ancient Semitic people who inhabited city-states along the Levantine coast of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily in present-day Lebanon and parts of coastal Syria.^[5] Their maritime civilization expanded and contracted over time, with its cultural core stretching from Arwad to Mount Carmel.^[6] Through trade and colonization, the Phoenicians extended their influence across the Mediterranean, from Cyprus to the Iberian Peninsula, leaving behind thousands of inscriptions.

The Phoenicians emerged directly from the Bronze Age Canaanites, continuing their cultural traditions after the Late Bronze Age collapse into the Iron Age with little disruption. They referred to themselves Canaanites and their land as Canaan, though the territory they occupied was smaller than that of earlier Bronze Age Canaan.^[7] The name Phoenicia is a Greek exonym that did not correspond to a unified native identity.^[8][9] Modern scholarship generally views the distinction between "Canaanites" and "Phoenicians" after c. 1200 BC as artificial.^[7][10]

Renowned for seafaring and trade, the Phoenicians established one of antiquity's most extensive maritime networks, active for over a millennium. This network facilitated exchanges among cradles of civilization such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. They founded colonies and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean; among these, Carthage in North Africa developed into a major power by the seventh century BC.

Phoenician society was organized into independent city-states, notably Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos.^[11] Each retained political autonomy, and there is no evidence of a shared national identity.^[12] While kingship was common, powerful merchant families likely exercised influence through oligarchies. The Phoenician cities flourished most in the ninth century BC, but subsequently declined under the expansion of empires such as the Neo-Assyrian and Achaemenid. Their influence nevertheless endured in the western Mediterranean until the Roman destruction of Carthage in the mid-second century BC.

Long regarded as a "lost" civilization due to the absence of native historical accounts, the Phoenicians became better understood only after the discovery of inscriptions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Since the mid-twentieth century, archaeological research has revealed their significance in the ancient world.^[13] Their most enduring legacy is the development of the earliest verified alphabet, derived from Proto-Sinaitic script,^[14] which spread across the Mediterranean gave rise to the Greek alphabet and in turn the Latin and Cyrillic scripts, as well as influencing Syriac and Arabic writing systems.^[15][16] They also contributed innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and governance. Their commercial networks are considered foundational to the economic and cultural development of classical Mediterranean civilization.^[17][18]