Permian–Triassic extinction event

Marine extinction intensity during Phanerozoic
%
Millions of years ago
Tr–J
Cap
Late D
O–S
Plot of extinction intensity (percentage of marine genera that are present in each interval of time but do not exist in the following interval) vs time in the past.[1] Geological periods are annotated (by abbreviation and colour) above. The Permian–Triassic extinction event is the most significant event for marine genera, with just over 50% (according to this source) perishing. (source and image info)

The Permian–Triassic extinction event,[α] colloquially known as the Great Dying,[7][8] was an extinction event that occurred approximately 251.9 million years ago (mya), at the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, and with them the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.[9] It is Earth's most severe known extinction event,[10][11] with the extinction of 57% of biological families, 62% of genera, 81% of marine species,[12][13][14] and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species.[15] It is also the greatest known mass extinction of insects.[16] It is the greatest of the "Big Five" mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic.[17] There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction.[15][18]

The scientific consensus is that the main cause of the extinction was the flood basalt volcanic eruptions that created the Siberian Traps,[19][20] which released sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, resulting in euxinia (oxygen-starved, sulfurous oceans),[21][22] elevated global temperatures,[23][24][25] and acidified oceans.[26][27][3] The level of atmospheric carbon dioxide rose from around 400 ppm to 2,500 ppm with approximately 3,900 to 12,000 gigatonnes of carbon being added to the ocean-atmosphere system during this period.[23]

Several other contributing factors have been proposed, including the emission of carbon dioxide from the burning of oil and coal deposits ignited by the eruptions;[28][29] emissions of methane from the gasification of methane clathrates;[30] emissions of methane by novel methanogenic microorganisms nourished by minerals dispersed in the eruptions;[31][32][33] longer and more intense El Niño events;[34] and an extraterrestrial impact that created the Araguainha crater and caused seismic release of methane[35][36][37] and the destruction of the ozone layer with increased exposure to solar radiation.[38][39][40]

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  2. ^ McLoughlin, Steven (8 January 2021). "Age and Paleoenvironmental Significance of the Frazer Beach Member – A New Lithostratigraphic Unit Overlying the End-Permian Extinction Horizon in the Sydney Basin, Australia". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8 (600976) 600976: 605. Bibcode:2021FrEaS...8..605M. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.600976.
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  4. ^ Jouault, Corentin; Nel, André; Perrichot, Vincent; Legendre, Frédéric; Condamine, Fabien L. (6 December 2011). "Multiple drivers and lineage-specific insect extinctions during the Permo-Triassic". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 7512. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-35284-4. PMC 9726944. PMID 36473862.
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  6. ^ ""Great Dying" lasted 200,000 years". National Geographic. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on November 24, 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  7. ^ St. Fleur, Nicholas (16 February 2017). "After Earth's worst mass extinction, life rebounded rapidly, fossils suggest". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  8. ^ Algeo, Thomas J. (5 February 2012). "The P–T Extinction was a Slow Death". Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on 2021-03-08.
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  11. ^ Chen, Yanlong; Richoz, Sylvain; Krystyn, Leopold; Zhang, Zhifei (August 2019). "Quantitative stratigraphic correlation of Tethyan conodonts across the Smithian-Spathian (Early Triassic) extinction event". Earth-Science Reviews. 195: 37–51. Bibcode:2019ESRv..195...37C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.03.004. S2CID 135139479. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  12. ^ Stanley, Steven M. (18 October 2016). "Estimates of the magnitudes of major marine mass extinctions in earth history". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (42): E6325 – E6334. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113E6325S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1613094113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5081622. PMID 27698119.
  13. ^ Benton, M.J. (2005). When Life Nearly Died: The greatest mass extinction of all time. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28573-2.
  14. ^ Bergstrom, Carl T.; Dugatkin, Lee Alan (2012). Evolution. Norton. p. 515. ISBN 978-0-393-92592-0.
  15. ^ a b Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 275 (1636): 759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
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  17. ^ Marshall, Charles R. (5 January 2023). "Forty years later: The status of the "Big Five" mass extinctions". Cambridge Prisms: Extinction. 1 e5. doi:10.1017/ext.2022.4. PMC 11895713. PMID 40078681. S2CID 255710815.
  18. ^ Jin, Y. G.; Wang, Y.; Wang, W.; Shang, Q. H.; Cao, C. Q.; Erwin, D. H. (21 July 2000). "Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permian–Triassic boundary in south China". Science. 289 (5478): 432–436. Bibcode:2000Sci...289..432J. doi:10.1126/science.289.5478.432. PMID 10903200. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
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  21. ^ Hulse, D; Lau, K.V.; Sebastiaan, J.V.; Arndt, S; Meyer, K.M.; Ridgwell, A (28 Oct 2021). "End-Permian marine extinction due to temperature-driven nutrient recycling and euxinia". Nat Geosci. 14 (11): 862–867. Bibcode:2021NatGe..14..862H. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00829-7. hdl:2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/334194. S2CID 240076553.
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  29. ^ Darcy E. Ogdena & Norman H. Sleep (2011). "Explosive eruption of coal and basalt and the end-Permian mass extinction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (1): 59–62. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109...59O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118675109. PMC 3252959. PMID 22184229.
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