Great Northern War
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In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by Russia successfully contested the supremacy of Sweden in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe.[42] The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I of Russia, Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony–Poland–Lithuania. Frederick IV and Augustus II were defeated by Sweden, under Charles XII, and forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706 respectively, but rejoined it in 1709 after the defeat of Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava. George I of Great Britain and the Electorate of Hanover joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover and in 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia joined it in 1715.
Charles XII led the Swedish Army. Swedish allies included Holstein-Gottorp, several Polish magnates under Stanisław I Leszczyński (1704–1710) and Cossacks under the Ukrainian Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1708–1710). The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter I.
The war began when Denmark–Norway, Saxony and Russia, sensing an opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young Charles XII, formed a coalition against Sweden. Denmark invaded Sweden's ally Holstein-Gottorp, while Saxony and Russia declared war on the Swedish Empire and attacked Swedish Livonia and Swedish Ingria, respectively. Sweden parried the Danes at Travendal (August 1700) and the Russians at Narva (November 1700), and in a counter-offensive pushed Augustus II's forces through the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to Saxony, dethroning Augustus on the way (September 1706) and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). The treaty also secured the extradition and execution of Johann Reinhold Patkul, architect of the alliance seven years earlier. Meanwhile, the forces of Peter I had recovered from defeat at Narva and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where they cemented Russian access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg in 1703. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended in 1709 with the destruction of the main Swedish army at the decisive Battle of Poltava (in present-day Ukraine) and Charles' exile in the Ottoman town of Bender. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian–Moldavian army in the Pruth River Campaign, but that peace treaty was in the end without great consequence to Russia's position.
After Poltava, the anti-Swedish coalition revived and subsequently Hanover and Prussia joined it. The remaining Swedish forces in plague-stricken areas south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted, with the last city, Tallinn, falling in the autumn of 1710. The coalition members partitioned most of the Swedish dominions among themselves, destroying the Swedish dominium maris baltici. Sweden proper was invaded from the west by Denmark–Norway and from the east by Russia, which had occupied Finland by 1714. Sweden defeated the Danish invaders at the Battle of Helsingborg. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front but was killed in the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718.
The war ended with the defeat of Sweden, leaving Russia as the new dominant power in the Baltic region and as a new major force in European politics. The Western powers, Great Britain and France, became caught up in the separate War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which broke out over the Bourbon Philip of Anjou's succession to the Spanish throne and a possible joining of France and Spain. The formal conclusion of the Great Northern War came with the Swedish-Hanoverian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). By these treaties Sweden ceded its exemption from the Sound Dues[43] and lost the Baltic provinces and the southern part of Swedish Pomerania. The peace treaties also ended its alliance with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estuary (Stettin Lagoons), Russia secured the Baltic Provinces, and Denmark strengthened its position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with the death of Charles XII, and Sweden's Age of Liberty began.[44]
- ^ Markiewicz 2001, pp. 176–178.
- ^ Frost 2000, pp. 263–271.
- ^ a b Ullgren 2008, p. 324.
- ^ Shamenkov 2015, p. 64.
- ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 20, 260–262.
- ^ Magocsi 2010, pp. 262–263.
- ^ a b Querengässer 2015, p. 254.
- ^ Silfverstolpe 1864, p. 151.
- ^ Glete 2010, p. 206.
- ^ a b Glete 2010, p. 429.
- ^ Generalstaben 1900, p. 270.
- ^ Dorrell 2009, p. 52.
- ^ Dorrell 2009, pp. 133, 156, 177.
- ^ Stone 2001, p. 256.
- ^ Pintner 1978, p. 29.
- ^ Black 1991, p. 28.
- ^ Dudink & Hagemann 2020, p. 51.
- ^ Glete 2010, p. 433.
- ^ a b Гришинский, Никольский & Кладо 1911, p. 176.
- ^ Dorrell 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Generalstaben 1920, pp. 226–229.
- ^ Generalstaben 1927, p. 61.
- ^ Stone 1983, p. 62.
- ^ Summerfield 2015, p. 254.
- ^ Martinsson 2015, p. 134.
- ^ Silfverstolpe 1864, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Höglund & Sallnäs 2000, p. 20.
- ^ Keskisarja 2019, p. 244.
- ^ Ullgren 2008, p. 326.
- ^ Lieven 2006, p. 537.
- ^ Krinko 2019, p. 292.
- ^ Kernosovsky, Anton (1992) [1933]. История русской армии [History of the Russian army] (in Russian). Vol. 1: from Narva to Paris. Moscow: Golos. ISBN 5-7055-0864-6. p. 63
- ^ Урланис 1960, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Fuller 1992, p. 49.
- ^ Höglund, Sallnäs & Bespalov 2006, p. 51.
- ^ Lindegren 1995, pp. 11–50.
- ^ Gasper 2012, p. 52.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017, p. 90.
- ^ Markiewicz 2001, p. 181.
- ^ Mackenbach 2020, p. 358.
- ^ Megorsky, Boris (2018). The Russian Army in the Great Northern War 1700–21: Organisation, Materiel, Training and Combat Experience, Uniforms. Helion Limited. ISBN 978-1-911512-88-2.
- ^ Gosse 1911, p. 206.
- ^ Gosse 1911, p. 216.
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