French colonial empire

The French colonial empire (French: Empire colonial français) consisted of the overseas colonies, protectorates, and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "First French colonial empire", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost or sold, and the "Second French colonial empire", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. On the eve of World War I, France's colonial empire was the second-largest in the world after the British Empire.

France began to establish colonies in the Americas, the Caribbean, and India in the 16th century but lost most of its possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years' War. The North American possessions were lost to Britain and Spain, but Spain later returned Louisiana to France in 1800. The territory was then sold to the United States in 1803. France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. As it developed, the new French empire took on roles of trade with the metropole, supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items. Especially after the disastrous Franco-Prussian War, which saw Germany become the leading economic and military power of the continent of Europe, acquiring colonies and rebuilding an empire was seen as a way to restore French prestige in the world. It was also to provide manpower during the world wars.^[8]

A central ideological foundation of French colonialism was the Mission civilisatrice, or "civilizing mission",^[9][10] which aimed to spread French language, institutions, and values. Promoted by figures like Jules Ferry, who spoke of a "duty to civilize", this vision framed colonialism as a universalist and progressive project. It was nonetheless contested, including by prominent politicians such as Georges Leygues, who rejected the policy of assimilation : "when faced with Muslim, Hindu, Annamite populations, all with a long history of brilliant civilizations, the policy of assimilation would be the most disastrous and absurd."^[11]

In practice, colonial subjects were governed under unequal legal systems and only rarely granted full citizenship, despite the universalist principles of the French Republic.^[12] While the French empire sometimes provided greater access to citizenship^[13] or education^[14] than other colonial powers, efforts to extend republican institution, such as the possibility of naturalization for Algerian Muslims,^[15] largely failed, facing both internal divisions and widespread refusal by colonized populations to fully submit to the laws of the French Republic.^[16]

In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the colonies as a base from which they prepared to liberate France. Historian Tony Chafer argues that: "In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War."^[17] However, after 1945, anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority. Revolts in Indochina and Algeria proved costly and France lost both colonies. After these conflicts, a relatively peaceful decolonization took place elsewhere after 1960. The French Constitution of 27 October 1946 (Fourth French Republic) established the French Union, which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as overseas departments and territories within the French Republic. These now total altogether 119,394 km² (46,098 sq. miles), with 2.8 million people in 2021. Links between France and its former colonies persist through La francophonie, the CFA franc, and joint military operations such as Operation Serval.

France sent few settlers to most colonies, with the notable exception of Algeria, where Europeans, though a minority, held political and economic dominance. The empire generated both collaboration and resistance, and many future anti-colonial leaders were educated in France, drawing on its republican ideals to challenge colonial rule.