Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero^[a] (/ˈsɪsəroʊ/ SISS-ə-roh; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlli.ʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic,^[4] who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire.^[5] His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists and the innovator of what became known as "Ciceronian rhetoric".^[6][7][8] Cicero was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC.

He greatly influenced both ancient and modern reception of the Latin language. A substantial part of his work has survived, and he was admired by both ancient and modern authors alike.^[9][10][11] Cicero adapted the arguments of the chief schools of Hellenistic philosophy in Latin and coined a large portion of Latin philosophical vocabulary via lexical innovation (e.g. neologisms such as evidentia,^[12] generator, humanitas, infinitio, qualitas, quantitas),^[13] almost 150 of which were the result of translating Greek philosophical terms.^[14]

Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. During his consulship in 63 BC, he suppressed the Catilinarian conspiracy. However, because he had summarily and controversially executed five of the conspirators without trial, he was exiled in 58 but recalled the next year. Spending much of the 50s unhappy with the state of Roman politics, he took a governorship in Cilicia in 51 and returned to Italy on the eve of Caesar's civil war. Supporting Pompey during the war, Cicero was pardoned after Caesar's victory. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, he led the Senate against Mark Antony, attacking him in a series of speeches. He elevated Caesar's heir Octavian to rally support against Antony in the ensuing violent conflict. But after Octavian and Antony reconciled to form the triumvirate, Cicero was proscribed and executed in late 43 BC while attempting to escape Italy for safety. His severed hands and head (taken by order of Antony and displayed representing the repercussions of his anti-Antonian actions as a writer and as an orator, respectively) were then displayed on the rostra.^[15]

Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, and classical Roman culture.^[16] According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity."^[17] The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century Enlightenment,^[18] and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as John Locke, David Hume, Montesquieu, and Edmund Burke was substantial.^[19] His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.^[20]

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