Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

Battle of Aleppo
مَعْرَكَةُ حَلَبَ
Part of the Syrian civil war


Clockwise from top-left: A destroyed tank in Aleppo, the Saadallah al-Jabiri Square buildings after the October 2012 Aleppo bombings, residents of Aleppo wait in line for aid relief, and a Free Syrian Army fighter walking among rubble in Aleppo
Bottom: The situation in Aleppo on 20 August 2016, when both the rebels and Syrian Government forces besieged each other
Map Legend
  •   Syrian Arab Army control
      Opposition control (including al-Nusra Front)
      SDF control
      Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant control
      Joint SAA-SDF control
      Confrontation or unclear situation
Date19 July 2012 – 22 December 2016
(4 years, 5 months and 3 days)[8]
Location
Aleppo, Aleppo Governorate, Syria
36°13′00″N 37°10′00″E / 36.216667°N 37.166667°E / 36.216667; 37.166667
Result

Syrian Army and allied victory[9][10]

  • City divided between a government-held west and rebel-held east, with two northern districts YPG-held, from July 2012 to November 2016[11]
  • UNESCO World heritage site Ancient City of Aleppo largely damaged in the fighting[12]
  • In December 2016, pro-government forces gained control of all of the formerly rebel-held east[9][13]
  • The YPG controls Kurdish-majority Sheikh Maqsoud
Belligerents
Ba'athist Syria
Iran (from 2013)
Russia (from September 2015)
Allied militias:
Liwa al-Quds[1] (from 2013)
Hezbollah[2] (from 2013)
Iraqi Shia militias[3] (from 2013)
Liwa Fatemiyoun[1]
Liwa Zainebiyoun[3]
Ba'ath Brigades[1][4]
SSNP[1] (from 2013)
Syrian Resistance[5]		 Fatah Halab (2015–2016)[6]
Jaysh Halab (December 2016)
Army of Conquest (since mid-2016)
Ansar al-Sharia (2015–2016)[7]		 YPG[a]
YPJ
Army of Revolutionaries
Commanders and leaders
Ali Abdullah Ayyoub[14]
(Chief of the General Staff)
Suhayl al-Hasan
(Head of Aleppo military operations)[15]
Qasem Soleimani
(Major General of IRGC)[16]
Viktor Bondarev
(Russian Aerospace Forces Commander-in-Chief)
Alexander Zhuravlyov[17]
(Russian intervention force commander)
Maher al-Assad
(4th Division)
Mohammed Akkad
(Governor of Aleppo)[18]
Militia commanders:
  • Ali Reza Tavassoli
    (Fatemiyoun chief commander)[1]
  • Saqib Haider Karbalai
    (Zainabiyoun chief commander)[3]
KIA:
  • Abbas Samii †
    (Republican Guard Commander)[19][20]
  • Jabbar Drisawi †
    (IRGC General)
  • Zaino Berri 
    (al-Berri tribe leader)[21]
  • Hossein Hamadani † (IRGC General)
  • Mohammad Rafi † (Liwa al-Quds Colonel)[22]
Abdul Jabbar al-Oqaidi
(FSA Aleppo top commander, 2013)[23]
Taufik Shiabuddin
(Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement)[24][25]
KIA:
  • Abdul Qader Saleh †[26]
    (al-Tawhid Brigade top commander)[27]
  • Yusef al-Jader †
    (al-Tawhid Brigade)[28]
  • Yussef Al-Abbas †[29]
    (al-Tawhid Brigade)
  • Khaled Hayani †
    (16th Division)[30]
  • Abu Khalid al-Suri †
    (Islamic Front)[31]
  • Abdulrahman al-Salameh † (Al-Nusra Front)[32]
  • Nasif Ismail †
    (Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zenki)[33]
Zoran Birhat[34]
(YPJ senior commander)
Sharvan Efrin[34]
(YPG commander)
[35]
Nujin Derik[36]
(YPJ commander)
Sewsen Bîrhat (YPJ commander)
KIA:
  • Yusuf Kahia †[37]
    (Kurdish Front commander)
Units involved
Syrian Armed Forces
Units involved
  • Syrian Army
    • 4th Mechanized Division[1][38]
    • Republican Guard[39]
      • Syrian Marines[1]
    • 4th Armoured Division[38]
    • 5th Mechanized Division[40]
    • 17th Division (Reserve)
    • 46th Special Forces (Airborne) Regiment[41]
    • 80th Army Brigade[42]
    • 25th Special Mission Forces Division[3]
    • Desert Hawks Brigade
    • 629th Battalion[43]
  • National Defence Forces[44][45][46]
  • Shabiha[47] (2011–2012)
    • Berri clan militias
  • Local Defence Forces[47]
    • Al-Baqir Brigade[3]
  • Military Intelligence Directorate
    • Military Security Shield Forces[3]
    • Forces of the Fighters of the Tribes
  • Syrian Air Force
  • Ministry of Interior
    • Syrian Police
    • Syrian Special Mission Forces[1]
Iranian Armed Forces
Units involved
  • IRGC[48]
    • Quds Force
    • IRGC Ground Forces
    • Basij
  • Iranian Army[49]
Russian Armed Forces
Support:
  • Russian Air Force[50]
  • Russian Navy
  • Russian Ground Forces[51]
  • Special Operations Forces advisors
    (Oct–Dec 2016)[52]
Iraqi Shia militias
Units involved
  • Harakat Hezbollah al-Nujaba
    • Ammar Yasser Brigade[3]
  • Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq[3][53]
  • Kata'ib al-Imam Ali[3]
  • Harakat al-Abdal[3]
  • Kata'ib Dir' al-Wilaya[3]
  • Kata'ib Hezbollah[16]
  • Badr Organisation[54]
Hezbollah
Units involved
  • Syrian Hezbollah units
    • Junud al-Mahdi[3]
    • Imam al Hujja Regiment[3]

Fatah Halab

  • Ahrar ash-Sham[55]
  • Al-Tawhid Brigade[56] (2012–14)[a]
  • Sham Falcons[57]
  • Jaysh al-Islam[58]
  • Harakat Nour al-Din al-Zenki[59]
  • Liwa al-Haqq[60]
  • Free Idlib Army[61]
  • Fastaqim Union
  • Levant Front
  • Army of Mujahideen
  • Syrian Turkmen Brigades[62]

Al-Nusra Front[63]

  • Jaish al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar[64]

Jabhat Ansar al-Din (since mid-2014)[63]

  • Harakat Fajr ash-Sham al-Islamiya[65]
  • Harakat Sham al-Islam[66]
Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria[67]
Movement of Salah al-Din the Kurd[68]
Ansar al-Aqida (FSA affilatied)[69]

Army of Revolutionaries

  • Jabhat al-Akrad
  • Northern Democratic Brigade[70]
Strength
20,000 SAA soldiers (2012)[71]
1,500 NDF fighters[72]
2,000–4,000 Lebanese Hezbollah fighters[73]
4,000 Iraqi Hezbollah fighters[16]

15,000 fighters (2012)[74]

  • 2,500 al-Nusra fighters[74]

c. 8,000 fighters (mid-2016)[75]

  • 1,000 al-Nusra fighters[76]
 Unknown
Casualties and losses
15,000+ killed 10,000+ killed 1,500+ killed
31,273 overall deaths
(in the whole province; including 21,452 civilians)[77][9]
a The YPG was neutral at the start of the battle in 2012, semi-allied with the rebels 2012–2014,[78] neutral 2015–2016, and semi-allied with the Syrian Army during the final offensive in late 2016 (see November–December 2016 Aleppo offensive).
The location of Aleppo within Syria

The Battle of Aleppo (Arabic: مَعْرَكَةُ حَلَبَ, romanized: Maʿrakat Ḥalab) was a major military confrontation in Aleppo, the largest city in Syria,[79] between the Syrian opposition militias (such as the Free Syrian Army (FSA), the Levant Front and the al-Nusra Front)[80] against the Ba'athist Syrian government, supported by Hezbollah, IRGC-backed Shia militant groups,[81] Iran,[82] and Russia,[54][83] and against the Kurdish-majority People's Protection Units (YPG). The battle began on 19 July 2012 and was part of the ongoing Syrian Civil War.[84] A stalemate that had been in place for four years finally ended in July 2016, when Ba'athist government troops closed the rebels' last supply line into Aleppo with the support of Russian airstrikes. In response, rebel forces launched unsuccessful counteroffensives in September and October that failed to break the siege; in November, government forces embarked on a decisive campaign that resulted in the recapture of all of Aleppo by December 2016.[85] The Syrian government victory was widely seen as a turning point in Syria's civil war.[86][87]

The large-scale devastation of the battle and its importance led combatants to name it the "mother of battles"[88] or "Syria's Stalingrad".[89][90] The battle was marked by widespread violence against civilians,[91] repeated targeting of hospitals and schools (mostly by pro-government air forces[92][93] and to a lesser extent by the rebels),[94][95][96] and indiscriminate aerial strikes and shelling against civilian areas.[83][97][98][99] It was also marked by the inability of the international community to resolve the conflict peacefully. The UN special envoy to Syria proposed to end the battle by giving East Aleppo autonomy, but this was rejected by the Ba'athist government.[100] Hundreds of thousands of residents were displaced by the fighting and efforts to provide aid to civilians or facilitate evacuation were routinely disrupted by continued combat and mistrust between the opposing sides.[101][102]

Numerous atrocities were perpetrated by pro-Assad military forces and rebel forces during the siege of Aleppo.[103][104][105][106] These included the deprivation of necessities as a weapon of war and forced starvation tactics launched by the Assad regime,[107][108][109] the systematic perpetration of chemical attacks by Ba'athist Syrian military forces,[110][111][112] the extensive dropping of barrel bombs on residential areas by the Syrian Arab Air Force,[113][114][115][116] the indiscriminate strikes with cluster munitions on populated areas by Russian and Ba'athist Syrian forces,[117][118] the carrying out of "double tap" airstrikes to target rescue workers responding to previous strikes,[119] forced displacement of tens of thousands of Aleppo residents,[120][104] as well as massacres of women and children by IRGC-backed Khomeinist militant groups.[82] Armed rebel militias engaged in summary killings of fighters from the Ba'athist military apparatus and Assadist shabiha groups.[121] Pro-Assad forces, Syrian opposition militias and SDF fighters engaged in the targeting of civilians with snipers,[122] the usage of IEDs, car bombs,[123] as well as the usage of mortars and highly inaccurate improvised weaponry that indiscriminately targeted civilians.[124] Following the 2016 Ba'athist government offensive in Aleppo, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights described the bombardments and devastating siege of eastern Aleppo as "crimes of historic proportions".[125]

After four years of fighting, the battle was one of the bloodiest battles of the Syrian Civil War, leaving over 31,000 people dead,[77][126] almost a tenth of the estimated overall war casualties at that time.[127] The siege also resulted in the severe destruction of the Old City of Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[128] An estimated 33,500 buildings have been either damaged or destroyed.[129] It is considered one of the worst urban battles fought in the 21st century, due to its length and destruction.[130][79][131][126]

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